Tabla de contenidos para No. 32 en All About History

SPIES OF THE PHARAOHS ANCIENT EGYPT 3,500-1,000BCE With an extensive empire to oversee, Egyptian pharaohs utilised spies to help control their lands. This espionage helped leaders seek out disloyal subjects and any threats to their absolute leadership. Spies could also be very useful in finding out more about neighbouring civilisations and whether or not they were a threat to Egypt. Espionage was used against the likes of the Assyrians and Hittites and became especially relevant with the coming of the Macedonian and Roman empires, who were thought to be a direct threat to the pharaoh and his civilisation. Betrayal of Joan of Arc FRANCE 1431 The French victory at the Siege of Orleans in 1429 was a turning point in the Hundred Years’ War. The successful defence of the city…

Brief Bio NINJAS Japan 15th-17th centuries More properly shinobi, ninjas have been surrounded by mystery and intrigue since they emerged in Japan. Although there is evidence they may have existed before, they rose to notoriety in the civil unrest of the 15th century. Similar to modern-day special forces, ninjas relied on a variety of skills, tools and weapons to complete their covert operations. 01 NINJAS DRESSED IN BLACK Ninjas are often portrayed as dressing entirely in black with a hood and mask, but this simply doesn’t make sense. A ninja’s job was to blend in with everyone else, impossible in such a costume. Ninjas would have worn the traditional clothes of the era, which were available in a wide variety of colours from brown and grey to blue and red.…

JULIUS AND ETHEL ROSENBERG USA, 1915/1918-53 This husband and wife were American citizens executed for passing information about the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union. OTTO VON BOLSCHWING EAST PRUSSIA, 1909-82 Previously an SS intelligence agent, von Bolschwing was recruited by the CIA after the war. ARKADY NIKOLAYEVICH SHEVCHENKO DENMARK, 1930-98 Shevchenko was the highest-ranking Soviet official to defect to the West. KIM PHILBY UK, 1912-88 Philby was a high ranking member of British intelligence who was secretly supplying information to the Soviet Union as part of a spy ring known as the Cambridge Five.…

In 1905, Albert Einstein published four papers that revolutionised our understanding of the universe. He won a Nobel Prize for his contribution and came up with the most famous scientific equation: E=mc2 – as recognisable as his shock of white hair and bushy ‘tache. At the time of these breakthroughs, however – a year that would become known as his ‘annus mirabilis’, or ‘miraculous year’ – he was a dark-haired, doe-eyed 26-year-old. Handsome and known for being a bit of a ladies’ man, he didn’t even have a PhD. In fact, he was working in a Swiss patent office at the time, a role significantly less prestigious than his desired doctorate. In hindsight, though, the position afforded him time to theorise on the properties of light. Einstein worked best as…

The Heart This protected the heart, believed to be the most important organ. The underside was often inscribed with spells from the Book of the Dead that would help the spirit navigate the underworld. The Knot Of Isis Knots were regularly used as amulets as it was believed they bound and released magic. They were said to protect the wearer from harm, and were placed on the neck. The Djed This represented the backbone of Osiris, the god of the afterlife. It was wrapped close to the spine and enabled the mummy to sit up in the afterlife, ensuring its resurrection. The Headrest According to the Book of the Dead, if placed under the neck, this amulet provided physical comfort for the deceased and also prevented them from being decapitated.…

RANK: CORPORAL YEARS OF SERVICE: 1915-19 MILITARY HONOURS RECEIVED: CROIX DE GUERRE (FRANCE) Born to poor parents in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, Johnson moved north to Albany, New York, as a teenager. Before enlisting he worked as a chauffeur, a labourer in a coal yard and a railway porter. At one point in the fighting on the night of 14-15 May 1918, Johnson, having run out of ammunition, threw one of his German assailants over his shoulder, who then stabbed him in the ribs. Johnson had multiple wounds, mostly from knives and bayonets, in his back, face, left arm, and left foot, which was so badly damaged that doctors inserted a steel plate in it. Johnson remained modest about his heroism. “There wasn’t anything so fine about it,” he said, “just…

LORD LOUIS MOUNTBATTEN LEADER Mountbatten was a veteran of World War I and was chief of combined operations by the time of Dieppe. Strengths Lots of experience and a favourite of Churchill’s. Weakness Disliked by colleagues. Rumours of executing the raid without authority. COMMANDOS UNIT The 1,000 British soldiers were accompanied by members of the elite commando units. Strengths Special training to specifically prepare for these operations in France. Weakness Little experience of raids of this magnitude. DAIMLER DINGO KEY WEAPON A small two-man vehicle, it would be used to rapidly transport troops across the beaches. Strengths Quick and nimble, it could reach speeds of 88 kilometres per hour (55 miles per hour). Weakness Armour was only 30mm (1.18 inches) thick.…

3 murders The highest annual body count for Tombstone, Arizona, happened in 1881, the same year as Wyatt Earp’s famous gunfight at the OK Corral $5-10 million The biggest value stagecoach shipments in today’s equivalent – usually gold bullion 6$ The number of bank robberies across 15 states from 1859 to 1900. There weren’t many banks and with no cars, it was a lot harder to get away with it back then 45 The number of murders from 1870-85 in five Kansas towns, a lower per capita than today 13 May 1881 Billy the Kid’s hanging date set by Lincoln county courts 28 The number of times the outlaw Black Bart robbed stagecoaches in California, making thousands of dollars a year…

A panopticon prison is designed so that large numbers of inmates can be observed by a single guard. The concept was developed by philosopher and jurist Jeremy Bentham in the late 18th century after younger brother, Samuel, had the idea of a Russian factory with a central observation point that would allow one supervisor to see every worker. By adapting the principle to a prison, Bentham Senior introduced a circular building with a glass inspection tower in the middle and cells around the outer wall. The prisoners would not be able to see the guard watching them thanks to wooden blinds but, in theory, the feeling that they could be spotted at any time ensured they behaved. Only the Presidio Modelo in Cuba, which closed in 1967, could claim to…

Inside a Victorian detective’s study Discover the gadgets and paraphernalia that would have been used by the real Sherlock Holmes of 19th-century Britain. Einstein: Hero or villain? We reveal the dark side of the iconic genius who came up with the world’s most famous scientific equation. Survive a Tudor voyage Brave the waves and find out whether you could have outwitted the Armada with our time traveller’s handbook. Be part of history www.historyanswers.co.uk Share your views and opinions online Facebook /AllAboutHistory Twitter @AboutHistoryMag…

IAN FLEMING BRITISH 1908-64 His name was Fleming, Ian Fleming – a former banker, journalist and secret agent. The son of a Conservative MP, Fleming enjoyed a privileged upbringing and the finest education. His flair for linguistics is probably why he was drafted into naval intelligence at the brink of World War II, where he was embroiled in a plot to wash up a dead body on occupied Europe carrying false intelligence about Allied landings. In a case of life imitating art, Fleming wrote his first spy novel, Casino Royale, aged 44. But it was his passion for bird watching that inspired the name James Bond, borrowing it from a leading American ornithologist. BELLE BOYD AMERICAN 1844-1900 When a Union soldier burst into her family home, 17-year-old Belle Boyd whipped…

Bletchley Park was Britain’s best-kept secret. Behind the doors of the Victorian mansion, men and women worked around the clock to crack the communications between Hitler and his generals in World War II. The Germans thought their Enigma cipher was impenetrable, but a team of mathematicians – including the father of computer science, Alan Turing – unravelled the key. The small team of codebreakers grew in numbers, deciphering messages and giving the Allies the advantage, and Bletchley Park was credited with shortening the war. However, it wasn’t until the 1970s that the world discovered what really happened. GO TO WORK IN SECRET The codebreakers worked in three shifts so that work could carry on around the clock. One week was 9am to 4pm, the next was midnight until 9am, while…

Yorkist victory Lancastrian victory Tudor victory 01 First St Albans 22 May 1455 Opening exchanges of the conflict. Uninvited to a king’s council meeting, which potentially threatens him, Richard of York and allies intercept royal forces at St Albans. In town street fighting, the king is defeated. Key Lancastrians, including Somerset, are killed. 02 Blore Heath 23 September 1459 Hostilities resume after an uneasy peace. The queen despatches a large Lancastrian force under command of Lord Audley to intercept troops of Richard’s ally Salisbury. Despite weight of numbers, the Royalists are routed. 03 Ludford Bridge 12 October 1459 Combined Yorkists forces march to Worcester but encounter a huge Royalist army led by Henry VI himself. To attack is treason. Many Yorkists defect, others retreat and scatter. Richard flees to Ireland;…

1. The fatal blows At the base of the skull, a section of bone has been sliced off by a large, sharp-bladed weapon, like a halberd. There is a second deep penetration hole, perhaps sword created. Either injury would have been fatal. 2. Frontal attack There is a cut mark on the lower jaw, likely a knife injury. This, together with both fatal blows, suggests that Richard had lost his helmet in the battle. 3. Head injuries A. The top rear of the skull has been clipped several times by a sharp-bladed weapon, such as a sword. Painful blows, though not fatal. B. A small penetration wound on the skull top, consistent with that of a dagger, was forceful enough to split the bone, pushing small pieces inside. C. The…

Long before their deaths, wealthy Egyptians built luxurious tombs for themselves and filled them with objects that would protect and assist them in the afterlife. This ranged from simple items like bowls, combs and clothing to chariots, furniture, weapons and jewellery. The treasures found in Ancient Egyptian tombs are among some of the most valuable in the world, and show that status symbols were considered just as important for the afterlife as they had been on Earth. Food was also stored in the tomb and left as offerings after the tomb had been sealed in order to sustain the life force (ka) – one of the five elements that made up the human soul. Even depictions of food painted onto the walls of the tomb were believed to provide nourishment…

REVOLUTIONARY WAR 1775-1783 Shot by British soldiers in 1770, Crispus Attucks, the son of a freed slave, becomes the American Revolution’s first casualty. In 1775, George Washington ordered recruiters not to recruit blacks. Still, 9,000 black Americans fought for the Patriots. In Virginia, Lord Dunmore formed an all-black Ethiopian Regiment. About 100,000 blacks died during the Revolutionary War. After the war, the British resettled 3,000 ‘Black Loyalists’ in Nova Scotia, Canada. MILITIA ACTS OF 1792 1792 Prohibit African Americans from carrying arms in the militias of the recently founded United States of America. 1ST RHODE ISLAND REGIMENT 1775-83 First all-black military unit in the USA. THE WAR OF 1812 1812 Although the US Navy refuses to use black sailors, a manpower shortage means that one in eight crewmen are black.…

Follow rules. Punishments are very harsh for lawbreakers, including keelhauling – being dragged beneath the ship. Try and eat some fruit and vegetables. This will provide you with the essential vitamin C able to keep scurvy at bay. Some captains actually worked this out before it was scientifically ‘discovered’. Enjoy your free time. Sailors play games such as backgammon, dice games and even entertain each other with musical instruments such as tabor pipes. Look after your belongings. In such cramped conditions it’s easy for items to go missing. Many sailors mark their property with their initials or some kind of graffiti to identify it. Fall overboard. Surprisingly, not many sailors can swim, and there is superstition around saving anyone who falls in. Be afraid of animals. Not only do ships…

FIELD MARSHAL GERD VON RUNDSTEDT LEADER Also a veteran of the Great War, Rundstedt had already served on both the Western and Eastern fronts in World War II. Strengths Rundstedt had already invaded France once and wasn’t going to let go of it easily. Weakness The best Wehrmacht divisions were fighting on the Eastern Front. THE ATLANTIC WALL UNIT The newly created defences of Fortress Europe were designed especially with raids like the one on Dieppe in mind. Strengths Strong and large fortifications with well-protected gun emplacements. Weakness Allied forces could outflank the battlements if the operation was executed correctly. MG 34 KEY WEAPON The workhorse of the Wehrmacht infantry, the MG 34 was a devastating rapid-fire weapon. Strengths High rate of fire and ideally suited to the gun emplacements.…

1892 First Professional American football player William ‘Pudge’ Heffelfinger becomes the first professional player after being paid $500 to play for the Allegheny Athletic Association. Professional American football is born. 1905 Norway chooses a monarchy A 79 per cent majority of people vote for a monarchy instead of a republic as a referendum is held a few months after the country’s independence from Sweden. 1912 Body of Robert Scott found The frozen dead bodies of explorer Robert Falcon Scott and his two remaining companions are found after their fateful attempt to reach the South Pole. 1927 Leon Trotsky expelled Stalin, intent on assuming complete control of the Soviet state, expels his biggest rival and the former leader of the Bolshevik Reunion from the Soviet Communist Party. 1933 First snaps of…

The Cold War was not like an ordinary war; it was a period of increased political and military tension, with neither side willing to show its hand. Because of the secretive and covert nature of the period, Soviet and American spies played a central role in operations. Both sides invested money into their various intelligence agencies and spies were everywhere, even in the White House itself. Thanks to cinema, the life of a Cold War spy has been painted with a romantic brush, but working as a double agent was an incredibly dangerous and life threatening occupation, with all spies aware that the job could very well result in their death. WHAT YOU’LL NEED SPY GEAR Tree stump bug An artificial tree stump containing a secret bug to eavesdrop on…

WARRANT WRITTEN PROOF OF A TARGET’S CRIMES Anyone found guilty of plotting against the monarchy would first be given a trial. Essentially a kangaroo court, the conspirator would almost always be found guilty. The punishment was the brutal practice of being hanged, drawn and quartered. More than 100 Catholic priests met their fate in this way. BIBLE PROVIDING MOTIVATION AND PROVING LOYALTY Spymaster Francis Walsingham was such a devout Protestant that he chose to leave England during the reign of the Catholic Mary I. He returned in 1568 as secretary of state for Protestant Queen Elizabeth I. A man of God, he would do anything to prevent Catholicism returning to the shores of England. A POCKET FULL OF WAGES QUALITY WORK PAID WELL The payment given to a spy varied…

Helmet Enclosing the wearer’s entire head for maximum protection, Medieval helmets often had hinged visors to allow a clear field of vision when necessary. Gorget This steel collar protected the front and back of the neck and covered the neck opening in a complete cuirass. It also covered part of the clavicles and sternum. Heavy armour The whole suit could have 250 pieces and weigh up to 50 kilograms. The knight could be so heavy that he could barely move, and if he fell from his horse, he would become defenceless. Sword With a straight double-edged steel blade, a knight’s sword could be between 2.5 and 2.8 feet long and weigh between 1.3 and 1.5 kilograms. Cuisses These metal plates protected the thighs, and greaves covered the lower parts of…

Needham Roberts RANK: PRIVATE YEARS OF SERVICE: 1915-19 MILITARY HONOURS RECEIVED: CROIX DE GUERRE (FRANCE), PURPLE HEART (USA) Johnson’s partner on sentry duty, Roberts was badly wounded in the initial German attack. Although unable to move, he continued to fight, by passing grenades to Johnson. He became the second American soldier to receive the prestigious Croix de Guerre. Vertner Woodson Tandy RANK: FIRST LIEUTENANT YEARS OF SERVICE: 1915-19 MILITARY HONOURS RECEIVED: NONE In 1907, Tandy became the USA’s first African-American qualified architect. When the ‘Old 15th’ formed, he became the first African American to pass the US Army’s commissioning examinations. After the war, he established a successful architectural business. Rafael Hernandez Marin RANK: PRIVATE YEARS OF SERVICE: 1917-19 MILITARY HONOURS RECEIVED: NONE. In 1917, the musical brothers Rafael and Jesus…

By the late 19th century, cartographers had mapped much of the world, and the globe, almost as we know it today, was a well-established fact. To the east, the Victorian Empire had peaked despite being ousted from its interests in the New World colonies a century earlier, and the decades that followed Independence Day had seen a fledgling United States simmer with civil war and lawlessness. In the wake of the British, the new American government had made vast territorial gains, picking up the entire Louisiana region – a huge swathe of grasslands over a million square kilometres – from France’s Napoleon Bonaparte for a snip, at just $15 million. Border disputes and infighting followed, but that did not halt the USA’s progress from the Great Plains to the coastline…

SEPTEMBER 1845 Farmers see the leaves on their potato plants turning black. The blight is reported to be phytophthora infestans and devastates Ireland’s staple crop. FEBRUARY 1846 The first shiploads of corn arrive from the USA, having been delayed by bad weather. Poorly equipped Irish mills slow the distribution process further. SUMMER 1846 Charles Trevelyan cancels corn imports, insisting that doing so will prevent the Irish becoming “habitually dependent” on the British government. JANUARY 1847 In the midst of a freezing winter and following months of laissez faire, the government finally agrees to open soup kitchens for the starving peasants. 1848 A year following a successful potato harvest, the blight returns. The winter becomes known as the ‘long night of sorrow’ as harsh measures are imposed. 1851 The Great Famine…

Oscar Wilde Author, playwright and poet Date of incarceration: 1895 Crime: Sodomy and gross indecency Sentence: Two years’ hard labour Arthur Koestler Author and journalist Date of incarceration: 1940 Crime: Suspected illegal immigrant Sentence: Six weeks Simon Dee TV interviewer and radio DJ Date of incarceration: 1974 Crime: Non-payment of rates on his Chelsea home Sentence: 28 days Boy George Musician Date of incarceration: 2009 Crime: Assault and false imprisonment Sentence: 15 months Pete Doherty Musician Date of incarceration: 2011 Crime: Cocaine possession Sentence: Six weeks…

JACK THE RIPPER: THE DEFINITIVE CASEBOOK The case continues Author Richard Whittington-Egan Publisher Amberley Price £14.99 Released Out now It says a lot of the tapestry of history that more than a century after the grisly events that shocked Victorian London books are still being released on the subject of Jack the Ripper. Yet this is far apart from the latest tome claiming to have previously undiscovered proof on the identity of one of history’s most infamous boogeymen. Right from the beginning, author Richard Whittington-Egan distances himself from these kinds of books, insisting that he is writing this “not as an innovator, but as a commentator.” His statement is more than a little modest considering that he can rightly be credited as one of the founding fathers of ‘Ripperology’, having…

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A-Z OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE From Australia to the Zulu, discover our Imperial history CHARLIE CHAPLIN’S DARK SIDE How the silent movie star became an agent of scandal HOW TO CAPTURE A CASTLE Get inside a Medieval siege with our step-by-step guide PLUS: Cyrus the Great, Battle of Naseby, Trail of Tears, Winston Churchill, Life on the Silk Road, Slave trade, World War I trenches Underwear through history ,…