Table of contents for No. 46 in All About History

“The barge she sat in, like a burnished throne, Burned on the water; the poop was beaten gold, Purple the sails, and so perfumed, that The winds were love-sick with them” Shakespeare’s sumptuous description of Cleopatra’s voyage to meet Mark Antony is one of the most famous scenes in literature, based on an account by the ancient biographer Plutarch. Clearly this first impression made an impact – as soon as the enigmatic pharaoh stepped ashore, the Roman general was infatuated. Thus began the infamous tragedy of Ancient Egypt’s power couple – murder, seduction and betrayal. Read all about their fascinating story and uncover the truth about Cleopatra’s dramatic death on page 32. Speaking of death, we also delve into the morbid and macabre world of the Victorians. It’s perfect winter-time…

3RD CENTURY BCE PAGANS CELEBRATE SATURNALIA The pagan Romans celebrate the winter solstice with feasts, gifts and decorations in a festival called Saturnalia. Centuries later, this may be the inspiration for a Christian festival also held at the end of December. 1ST CENTURY CHRISTIANITY TAKES HOLD Pagan traditions start to be abandoned as Christianity spreads throughout the Roman Empire. However, Jesus’s birth date remains a mystery, as it is not mentioned in the Bible. 4TH CENTURY A DATE IS CHOSEN By studying the gospels of Matthew and Luke, Roman scholars estimate that Jesus was conceived on 25 March. As a result, the Roman Church decides on 25 December as Jesus’s birth date. 597 AUGUSTINE ARRIVES IN ENGLAND A Benedictine monk named Augustine is sent to Britain by Pope Gregory I…

LUCIAN OF SAMOSATA 125-180 GREECE In Lucian’s poem Saturnalia, the god Saturn exclaims, “During my week the serious is barred: no business allowed.” PLINY THE YOUNGER 61 CE - C.113, ITALY A Saturnalia ‘humbug’, Pliny escaped festivities. “I neither interrupt their amusement nor they my studies,” he wrote. GAIUS VALERIUS CATULLUS C.84-54 BCE, ITALY Poet Catullus was an enjoyer of the Saturnalia festivities, calling it in one of his works, “the best of days.” LUCIUS ANNAEUS SENECA 4 BCE - 62 CE, ITALY Also not approving of the revelry, Seneca described it as a “mob out of control ‘in pleasantries’.”…

Today, we know mince pies as delicious festive sweet treats, but the name ‘mincemeat’ filling hints at the story these pies have to tell. Spiced mince pies were first made in the 12th century, when Crusaders brought spices back from the Middle East. The filling was bulked out with meats like tongue and mutton, and the little pies began to get sweeter in the 18th century as sugar became hugely popular. These particular pies from around 1720 were used to show off at Christmas time. Only the wealthiest of families could employ expert pastry chefs that were able to create such flamboyant delicacies, and so to have these pies at your festive shindig was to keep up with the Medieval Joneses and then some. Ingredients For the pastry:…

Caesarion was the ill-fated son of Cleopatra and, according to her, Roman legend and her ex-lover Julius Caesar. Although Caesar himself never officially acknowledged the child, the fact that he allowed his lover to name him after him is indicative that he knew his paternity. Details surrounding the boy himself are shrouded in myth and legend, but it was frequently commented that he bore resemblance to his father in manner and looks. ‘Little Caesar’ spent his early years with his mother and father in Rome, with Cleopatra eager that Caesar acknowledge his son and make him his heir. However, hopes for this vanished with the leader’s assassination. Cleopatra returned to Egypt with her beloved son, aged three, and as per tradition, he was named co-heir with his mother. The pharaoh…

Q. Cleopatra was renowned for her beauty Q. How many languages did Cleopatra speak? Q. Cleopatra wrote a book about… Q. Cleopatra was a ruthless seductress Q. Cleopatra was a Roman citizen Q. During her reign, Cleopatra was able to: Q. She died from an asp bite Q. Which of these Roman fashion statements did Cleopatra adopt after her time in the city?…

Memento mori – meaning ‘remember you will die’ – were, in Victorian times, physical reminders of mortality, and could take various forms. Watches decorated with phrases relating to death, rings featuring locks of hair from deceased loved ones, brooches featuring skull designs or images – items such as these were used to both remember the dead and to remind the living that they would follow suit. At the most disturbing level to modern minds, the Victorians also took post-mortem photographs of the dearly departed, often posed with their surviving relatives. Due to the cost, this would sometimes be the only photograph ever taken of an individual.…

"These cod-scientific displays were, in reality, more about playing on people's desire to be scared and entertained" Ancient Egyptians believed in giving their dead an appropriate send-off, constructing elaborate mausolea to them, and entombing their corpses with personal possessions that might assist them in the afterlife. For the Victorians, with their morbid and complex rituals, the example of these ancient people was one to follow. Throughout the 19th century, Egyptian influences could be found in women’s mourning jewellery, which often featured obelisks or scarabs, and on tombs, mausolea, cemetery gates and even entire graveyards, which had an Egyptian style of architecture or decorative features. Ancient Egyptian texts were translated by German Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius in the 1840s, and detailed their beliefs about death and the afterlife, showing dead bodies…

476 Odoacer, a former Roman army officer, deposes Emperor Romulus Augustulus and proclaims himself ruler of Italia (Italy). This marks the end of Western Roman Empire. 488 Emperor Zeno of the Byzantine (Eastern) Roman Empire sends the Goth leader Theoderic to retake Italia, which begins a four-year war. 493 Theoderic and Odoacer eventually agree a truce but Theoderic kills Odoacer at the celebration banquet and rules Italy for 34 years. 527 Justinian I becomes emperor of the Byzantine Empire and begins a campaign to restore the lost Western half of the ancient Roman Empire. 536-540 Justinian’s generals, Belisarius and Narses, capture several important cities but Belisarius falls out with Justinian, and he is recalled to Constantinople. 541 Totila is made king of the Ostrogoths. With Belisarius away and the Byzantine…

The initiation rituals of the Assassins are filled with mythology and folklore. The most famous account of their way of life comes from the Venetian Marco Polo, who wrote of a, “…garden, the largest and most beautiful that ever was seen… There were runnels… flowing freely with wine and milk and honey… [and] the most beautiful damsels in the world, who could play on all manner of instruments… and danced in a manner that it was charming to behold. For the Old Man desired to make his people believe that this was actually Paradise.” Led into this ‘paradise’ would be young men drugged with hashish who would become loyal to Old Man, as they believed he would grant them eternal life if they followed his earthly wishes. They would be…

NVA FORCES 4 BATTALIONS VC FORCES 6 BATTALIONS GENERAL VO NGUYEN GIAP LEADER The defence minister masterminded the Tet Offensive in hopes of inciting an uprising in South Vietnam. Strengths Struck cultural centre of Hue with overwhelming strength. Weakness Mistakenly believed that NVA commanders were as skilled as the US commanders. NORTH VIETNAMESE REGULARS KEY UNIT The North Vietnamese were well supplied in the early stage of the battle because sympathisers had stockpiled food and ammunition. Strengths High morale and a willingness to die fighting for the reunification of Vietnam. Weakness Suffered from deprivation and diseases, such as malaria, living in primitive conditions in the jungles of South Vietnam. RPG-2 KEY WEAPON The hand-held, rocket-propelled grenade launcher gave NVA and VC soldiers the ability to knock out enemy armoured vehicles…

Armistice refused The Allies outright reject the first German request for an armistice, demanding unconditional surrender. The Germans refuse. 4 October 1918 The Allies advance Allied soldiers cross into German territory after pushing the Germans back from defensive positions along the Franco-German frontier. 10 December 1918 Continued fighting Heavy losses are sustained on both sides as guerrilla-style war against the Allies continues while German troop formations begin to disintegrate. Civil unrest grows across Germany as communist and right-wing factions collide. 16 December 1918 Wilhelm pushed out A provisional government is established in Berlin, and Kaiser Wilhelm II has virtually no continuing role in the conduct of the war. 31 December 1918 Attempted coup in Berlin Communist revolutionaries stage an attempt to overthrow the provisional German government, seizing numerous buildings in…

Since its golden period under Cosimo I and Lorenzo de’ Medici, Florence had notably declined in spirit by the time the dynasty drew its final breath. “[The city] is much sunk from what it was, for they do not reckon there are above 50,000 souls in it,” wrote one foreign visitor. By the time Gian Gastone succeeded his father, many Grand Tourists noted how the streets were packed mostly with either priests or peasants. Among the grand duke’s first acts was to accommodate the poor with alms and workhouses, but this did little to solve the problem. Harassed for decades by moralistic agents of the state, as well as impatient tax collectors, the entire population had become weary, paranoid and almost destitute during Cosimo III’s tenure. “The declining state of…

RAGNAR Ragnar Lodbrok, meaning ‘hairy trousers’, is a thoughtful and curious man. Based on the fabled Viking of the same name, Ragnar eventually meets his end at the hands of King Ælla. Ragnar’s sons will exact revenge on England by leading the Great Heathen Army to its shores. LAGERTHA Ragnar’s first wife and a shield maiden, Lagertha carves out her own destiny in a world ruled by men. According to legend, she disguised herself as a man and fought beside Ragnar to avenge the murder of her family. She later divorces Ragnar and claims rulership of her own kingdom. FLOKI Building the boat that brings Ragnar to England, the eccentric Floki is the embodiment of the old Norse religion and culture. While he has no clear historical counterpart, portions of…

Author Nicola Tallis Publisher Michael O’Mara Books Price £20 Released Out now Lady Jane Grey has been consigned to the history books as scarcely more than a tragic victim of adult ambition. This in spite of the fact that she was fiercely intelligent – attracting attention from notable scholars from both England and on the continent – and so strong-willed and fervent in her religious beliefs that she was willing to die for her faith, and indeed did. Still, the image that prevails when it comes to the Nine Day Queen is one of feminine helplessness, as depicted in Paul Delaroche’s iconic and idealised painting of her about to be executed. Dressed in white, the blindfolded Jane is guided to the block – the innocent usurper that’s often reduced to…

Creator Guy Burt, Peter Webber Cast Max Irons, Sam Neill, Amy Wren Distributor ITV Studios Home Entertainment Released Out now on DVD Destined to be a case study for the cultural historians of tomorrow, ITV’s Tutankhamun – following the hunt for the remains of the boy king against a backdrop of the Great War and greater instability – is a classic example of post-Downton Abbey storytelling. Like Downton, the show barrels through history to leave tumultuous events a sidenote and their wider implications in the wind. Despite taking place across nearly two decades (in which the passage of time is mainly marked by a character transitioning from daughter to love interest), World War I and the rise of Arab nationalism serve primarily as off-screen inconveniences to Howard Carter (Max Irons)…

1660 First English actress Margaret Hughes is the first woman to appear on the English stage, after Charles II issues a royal warrant that female roles must be played by women. She plays Desdemona in Shakespeare’s Othello. 1792 First US cremation Henry Laurens was an American merchant and slave trader. After his death aged 69, his funeral is the first formal cremation in the US. The nation’s first crematorium wasn’t built until 1876. 1813 Premiere of Beethoven’s 7th At a charity concert in Vienna, for soldiers wounded during the Napoleonic Wars, Ludvig van Beethoven conducts the first performance of Symphony No.7 In A Major, remarking afterwards that it was one of his best. 1854 Immaculate Conception proclaimed Pope Pius IX establishes the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. This says that…

CHARLES II BRITISH 1603-85 In 1644, a law banning the celebration of Christmas was passed in England. At the time, parliament was dominated by Puritans, who believed that popular Christmas activities such as drinking, dancing and overindulgence were sinful and superfluous to Christian beliefs. 16 years later, after the death of Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell, the ban was lifted by the new king, Charles II. Gradually, several much-loved Christmas traditions were revived and the festive spirit spread across the nation once again. Haddon Sundblom’s original oil painting of Santa Claus no longer exists. He had to paint over it due to canvas being so expensive HADDON SUNDBLOM AMERICAN 1899-1976 The jolly, rosy-cheeked, bearded Santa Claus recognised worldwide today was first created by Haddon Sundblom. The illustrator was commissioned by Coca-Cola…

TOP HAT A SMART HAT FOR A RICH MAN’S POSTMAN Before the invention of the Penny Black in 1840, post was only really affordable for the wealthy elite. Particularly in London, letter carriers had to look as smart as their customers, so a fur top hat was issued as part of the uniform in 1793. IDENTIFICATION NUMBER IT’S ALL IN THE DETAILS Before uniforms were universally distributed to letter carriers, all workers were required to wear brass buttons engraved with the king’s arms and an identification number. When the uniform was rolled out, however, these buttons were replaced with embroidered details on the collar, reading ‘GPO’ and their number. BRIGHT COAT LADIES SWOONED AT THE SIGHT Harking back to Britain’s dominance over its empire, the new General Post Office (GPO)…

Dracula Count Dracula, a vampire, was a creature caught between life and death. He is thought to reflect fears of immigration and sexual promiscuity. Being bitten is akin to being diseased, with ‘cures’ being sought to make the bitten well again. Mr Hyde The mysterious, hunchbacked Hyde is the alter-ego of Dr Jekyll, who has created a potion that enables him to become this repulsive being. Hyde represented both sex – something Victorians were keen to ‘hide’ – and the supernatural. Frankenstein’s monster Victor Frankenstein’s creation of a monster made of body parts from dead criminals reflected concerns about body snatchers, and how medicine and science – in particular, the development of electricity – could be used for evil as well as good. Heathcliff The anti-hero of Wuthering Heights, Heathcliff…

SELJUK EMPIRE Founded in 1037, this Sunni Muslim Empire stretched from the Hindu Kush mountains in the east to Anatolia at the height of its power. It would repeatedly clash with the Assassins until it was conquered and became the Khwarezmid Empire. KINGDOM OF TRIPOLI The southern Crusader state bordering the Ismaili state fought the enemies of the Assassins such as the Turks and Egyptians. It was absorbed into Mamluk Egypt shortly after Alamut fell to the Mongols. KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM One of the most important Crusader states, the kingdom held both the holy city and the coastal city of Acre. Swathes of the kingdom would change hands between Christian and Muslim powers multiple times. MONGOL EMPIRE Originally led by Genghis Khan, the Mongol Empire was once the largest contiguous…

Dress to impress Only your best gown and jewellery will do at the dinner table. Once seated, ladies must place their evening gloves on their lap until the meal is finished, and hands must never touch the table. Master mealtime etiquette Refrain from tucking-in until your hostess has taken a bite, and don’t believe everything Hollywood tells you – the lord and lady would sit in the middle, not at the ends, of the table to interact with guests. Sit up straight The back of a chair is purely for the servant to hold and you mustn’t lean against it. Nannies teach young children how to sit properly by strapping a knife to the chair. Hide your emotions English men and women don’t express emotion so physical contact should be…

ARVN FORCES 11 BATTALIONS US FORCES 3 MARINE BATTALIONS + 3 US ARMY BATTALIONS BRIGADIER GENERAL FOSTER C LAHUE, USMC LEADER The assistant commander of the 1st Marine Division. Strengths Pressed the attack despite stifling rules of engagement. Weakness Underestimated the enemy threat and fed reinforcements piecemeal. US MARINES KEY UNIT The US Marines were entrusted with helping defend against communist insurgency. Strengths The elite Marines excelled at offensive operations. Weakness Hampered by rules of engagement that initially prohibited artillery and air support in an effort to spare civilians. M48A3 PATTON TANK KEY WEAPON Spearheaded attacks through the city protecting infantry squads. Strengths Capable of knocking out strongpoints with its 90mm cannon. Weakness Unable to operate on some narrow streets inside the citadel and vulnerable to RPGs.…

793 Raid on Lindisfarne Monastery Season 1, Episode 2 c.794 Vikings raid Northumbria Season 1, Episode 3 800 Viking raid on Wessex Season 2, Episode 2 829 King Egbert becomes ruler of Mercia Season 4, Episode 8 852 King Beorhtwulf (or Brihtwulf) of Mercia is killed Season 3, Episode 1 853 A young Alfred the Great goes on pilgrimage to Rome Season 4, Episode 6 854 King Horik is killed Season 2, Episode 10 865 Sacking of Paris Season 3, Episode 8 911 Duke Rollo is given lands in Normandy Season 3, Episode 10…

Author Jan Bondeson Publisher Amberley Publishing Price £20 Released Out now You can depend on the 19th century for a dip into the sensational, mysterious and macabre, and Strange Victoriana does not disappoint. Full of detailed and gruesome illustrations and stories from the Illustrated Police News (known as the worst newspaper in England at the time it was published), this book is an anthology of true-crime stories from the reign of Queen Victoria. Having sourced a private collection of the Illustrated Police News, author Jan Bondeson began collating the fascinating accounts for a magazine feature in 2011, and such is the public’s morbid curiosity – which doesn’t seem to alter through the ages – that this was soon turned into a serial feature. This new release is a collection of…

Author Turtle Bunbury Publisher Gill Books Price £19.99 Released Out now Surely such a name as Turtle Bunbury tells of parental genius. The question arises though: can the writer live up to his name? Almost. The title tells the tale. It’s the story of a year, a year rendered significant for the author as the time when the building of his family home – a great pile of a place in County Carlow, Ireland – was begun. It’s not perhaps the most obvious time to start such a project, as Ireland was in the midst of the Great Famine that saw 1 million people die and 1 million more emigrate. But, as Bunbury shows, such a year will reverberate through the world, setting off ripples in all sorts of unexpected…

For some soldiers it was just another day of fear and bloodshed, but for others Christmas Day provided a brief but welcome distraction from the horrors of war. Lasting for six Christmases, World War II was the most geographically widespread conflict in history, as major Allied Powers such as Britain, France and Russia did battle with the major Axis Powers of Germany, Italy and Japan. Separated from their family and friends, many servicemen marked the day with traditions that reminded them of home, helping to spread a little cheer among their battle-worn comrades. ATTEND A RELIGIOUS SERVICE Christian soldiers on all fronts would normally try to mark Christmas with a religious service, typically Midnight Mass, which would be held just before midnight on Christmas Eve. Even some prisoners of war…

The Ptolemaic dynasty ruled over the Ptolemaic Empire in Egypt, and originally descended from one of Alexander the Great’s generals: Ptolemy. Prior to this, the Egyptians had been ruled by their own pharaohs. Ptolemy continued the Egyptian tradition of pharaohs marrying within the family, but this led to debilitating medical conditions down the line. Despite their reluctance to marry Egyptians, the pharaohs adapted many Egyptian customs, fusing them with Greek culture to produce a unique bicultural civilisation.…

Why is there so much doubt regarding how Cleopatra killed herself? Although the asp story was well promulgated within a year after her death, it was already being questioned by contemporary sources. It’s a bizarre and unique way to go, which may be why it became popular and why it was questioned. Octavian certainly believed it (or wanted to), because of the triumph and the representation of her in the procession with the asps, but we have to ask: was this part of the drama or real? We know Cleopatra sent a note to Octavian just before she killed herself, but no one ever found it. Cleopatra may have had enough sense of the dramatic to suggest this unique way of death – a snake was an important symbol in…

EDWARD I By the time of Edward I’s Crusade, the Assassins as an organisation had disappeared but there were still individuals that possessed their skill. As the assailant crept into Edwards’s bedchamber, the English king, alerted to his presence, grappled and killed his opponent with his bare hands. CONRAD OF MONTFERRAT The highest ranking of the Assassins’ many victims, Conrad was stabbed to death during a meeting of clergy in Tyre. The Assassins had disguised themselves as Christian monks in order to get close enough to the king of Jerusalem. NIZAM AL-MULK A powerful Seljuk sultan, al-Mulk was stabbed while being carried on his litter by a beggar, later discovered to be an Assassin in disguise. The story goes that al-Mulk and Hassan-i Sabbah were old friends that had quarrelled,…

Author Bio MARY S LOVELL Mary S Lovell has published ten bestselling biographies including The Mitford Girls that was based on interviews with four of the sisters: Debo, Diana, Pam and Decca. In the years between the two world wars, especially during the Great Depression, public opinion was divided between those who believed fascism could help the problems besetting Europe, and those who espoused socialism as the solution. Belief in these disparate ideologies was often the cause of irreparable rifts between families. Lord Redesdale was probably more affected than most, for his home, Asthall Manor in rural Oxfordshire, was the site of pitched battles of internecine warfare. Hammers and sickles and swastikas were etched into his windows with diamond rings, appropriate flags flew either side of the schoolroom down the…

MICHAEL HASKEW Michael Haskew has researched and written on military history topics for more than 30 years. He has contributed to numerous books and periodicals and is the author of more than 20 books on historical subjects, including West Point 1915: Eisenhower, Bradley, And The Class The Stars Fell On, and De Gaulle: Lessons In Leadership From The Defiant General. In a railroad car at Compiegne, France, on 11 November 1918, the armed forces of Imperial Germany surrendered to the Entente, effectively ending World War I. Although the armistice brought an end to the fighting on the Western Front, civil unrest was already sweeping Germany, fomenting potential revolution at home and giving rise to the “stab in the back” theory that contributed during the interwar years to the rise of…

Cosimo III THE PIOUS PATRIARCH A stern zealot and authoritarian, Cosimo’s reign was nowhere near as glorious or prosperous as either of his namesakes, and Florence rapidly declined as a city of influence during his time. His estranged wife, Marguerite Louise d’Orléans, left Florence in 1672, allowing Cosimo to indulge in entertaining guests, his substantial art collection and later in life his religion. In 1700, he travelled to Rome to add curious Catholic relics – the body parts of saints, for instance – to his collection of portraits, bronzes and sculptures. On his death, he left the state bankrupt. Francesco Maria THE PRANKSTER When Cosimo foresaw neither of his two sons being capable of continuing the Medici line, he turned to his younger brother, the cardinal Francesco Maria, who was…

“What you’re looking for is authenticity and truthfulness, even in drama”Michael Hirst Charting the voyages and adventures of the warrior Ragnar Lodbrok and his motley band of followers, Vikings cunningly interweaves myth and history to create an adventure for our time. The Vikings were Scandinavian raiders who unleashed terror across Europe and the Mediterranean for more than 300 years, from the late 8th century to the 11th century, in what is known as the Viking Age. Nowhere was safe from these fierce pagans as they sacked monasteries, cities – including Paris – and colonised parts of England, Scotland, Ireland and France. The creator of Vikings, Michael Hirst, is no stranger to historical drama. Penning the award-winning, bodice-ripping series The Tudors and the biographical film Elizabeth, he has now turned his…

“Ohler’s claims about Hitler himself are backed up by the meticulously kept diary of his personal physician” Author Norman Ohler Publisher Allen Lane Price £20 Released Out now Some of Hitler’s biggest decisions during World War II were made while he was high on drugs. That’s the astonishing findings of a new book by German author Norman Ohler, which also reveals that drug abuse wasn’t just restricted to the Nazi leader, but was rife throughout the Third Reich. Blitzed begins in what Ohler dubs the ‘Chemical Twenties’ before Hitler came to power. These were the hedonistic days of the Weimar Republic, when Germany partied hard to forget the horror and humiliation of World War I. It was a time that also saw a boom in Germany’s pharmaceutical industry, which was…

Author: Rita Gabis Price: £20 Publisher: Bloomsbury Having discovered her grandfather may have been involved in wartime atrocities in Lithuania during World War II, Gabis embarked on a four-year journey in search of the truth. In this autobiographical account of those years, she learns that he was directly involved in a gruesome massacre in the autumn of 1941, when 8,000 Jews were shot over the course of three days in the nearby killing field of Poligon. In publishing this intimate journey into the horrific world of the Holocaust in Lithuania, she helps us to better understand certain human micro-dynamics of the genocide that are all too often lost in debates about the Holocaust.…

Author Stacy Schiff Publisher Weidenfeld & Nicolson Price £9.99 Released Out now Receiving a timely reprint alongside Sony Pictures’ optioning of the film rights, Stacy Schiff’s The Witches recounts the infamous events of the 1692 Salem witch trials, from the first anguished cries of the afflicted to the final gasps of the condemned just nine months later. Schiff’s skilfully woven narrative, though framed as a straight factual account, reads as a tense historical courtroom drama, painting a fascinating but grim picture of Puritan life and the devastation caused when fear, ignorance and superstition lead a community to turn on itself. Where others have sought to identify the cause of the madness that gripped Massachusetts, Schiff’s approach is less focused on the root of the evil and more on exploring the…