Table of contents for No. 34 in All About History

The Vikings have a reputation for being coldblooded killers and reckless raiders, whose voyages were little more than testosterone-fuelled joyrides. But when we consider just how far their travels took them, we’re forced to think again about what really led them to venture out from their Scandinavian homeland. With evidence of settlements in North America, and with trade links that stretched as far east as Constantinople, might it be that the Vikings were a far more civilised and culturally rich people than we first thought them to be? This issue, we explore the lost kingdoms of the Vikings, and reveal just how much their legacy has influenced the modern world. Turn to page 28 to read the full feature. Also inside, with the 80th anniversary of his coronation looming, we…

ARTHUR SCARGILL 1938-PRESENT, UK The president of the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) organised and led the miners’ strikes in the 1970s and 1980s. ELLEN WILKINSON 1891-1947, UK A Labour politician, Wilkinson was a former suffragist who participated in the 1926 general strike and the Jarrow Crusade. PATRIC VERRONE 1959-PRESENT, USA A popular animated television writer, Verrone served as leader of the Writer’s Guild of America West during the 2007-08 writers’ strike. GEORGE FERNANDES 1930-PRESENT, INDIA Fernandes led over a million workers in the All India Railway Men’s Federation strike, which lasted for 20 days.…

Mohandas ‘Mahatma’ Gandhi led India to independence from British rule through a series of nonviolent protests. One of the most famous was the Salt March, which took place between March and April 1930 in reaction to the British salt tax, which prevented Indians from producing or selling this popular commodity independently. Gandhi and a band of followers marched 240 miles to the coastal village of Dandi, Gujarat, in order to make salt without paying tax. This sparked large-scale acts of civil disobedience by millions of Indians, and eventually resulted in Gandhi’s imprisonment. WRITE LETTERS For Gandhi’s message to be heard, the march had to grab the attention of the British government. Before setting off, he wrote a letter to the viceroy of India promising to call off the protest if…

The true extent of the Viking presence on North America is hotly debated, but it will always be one of the greatest achievements of maritime exploration. After the Norse Vikings populated Iceland in about 870, Greenland was next to follow, with its conquest instigated in the 980s by the notorious Erik the Red. The rough seas of the Atlantic were much tougher than the Vikings had previously experienced on the North Sea. To combat the difficult conditions, the Norse mariners used a type of ship known as a knarr. Larger than the standard longship, it could carry much more cargo and would stand up to whatever the Atlantic had to throw at it. This allowed for longer and more fruitful journeys. By 1150, 72,000 Norsemen were living in Iceland while…

01 Axe Wielding a foot-long bladed axe, when the Varangian guards arrived, the Byzantine emperor’s presence on the battlefield was confirmed. 02 Weaponry Double-edged swords and spears would also be used if an axe wasn’t available, or it was favourable for the conditions of battle. 03 Shield Shields would be in the classic Viking round style and would be worn on the back when warriors were wielding a two-handed weapon. 04 Helmet Varangian guards wore an iron conical helmet but were also happy to don a headdress instead in the hot Mediterranean weather. 05 Boots Tough leather boots were covered by greaves or leg guards to protect the lower legs from hacks and slashes. 06 Clothing A standard tunic would be worn under the armour along with metal strips that…

In April 1917, Edward was swept off his feet by Marguerite Alibert, a high-class Parisian courtesan, professionally known as ‘Maggie Meller’. Maggie’s studbook already included a cohort of seriously rich admirers, including the Duke of Westminster, French aristocrats, politicians and bankers. Her eye-watering sexual repertoire captivated the shy prince and their affair lasted until the end of the war. Edward wrote wildly indiscreet love letters to Maggie, which she kept. This intimate correspondence would eventually save her from the gallows. In 1923, she shot her wealthy Egyptian husband dead for his money and was charged with murder. Faced with blackmail, the royal household did a back-room deal. Maggie stayed silent about the royal affair; the trial judge ensured the jury were not told about her true (and damning) character. Edward…

WHO TO BEFRIEND Cadre The agents of Mao’s state control, cadres are appointed members of the Chinese Communist Party tasked with controlling a specific work unit, or danwei. The responsibility of cadres is large: they will allocate housing, grain, oil and other vital rations. They also have the ability to grant workers permission to join the Communist Party and change career. Perhaps most importantly of all, they issue permits to marry, travel, and even conceive or adopt children. With such all-encompassing power over the life of the average Chinese worker, it would be a big advantage to have one of these state representatives on your side. Extra tip: The Communist Party and Red Guard are particularly hostile towards ‘experts’, such as doctors, teachers and other intellectuals, so if you have…

HATTORI HANZÓ 1540s-96 Hanzo was also a samurai, a master tactician and an expert in spear fighting in the service of the Tokugawa shogunate. During the 1580s, he and his ninja protected their lord, helping him become the ruler of all Japan. MOCHIZUKI CHIYOME 1540s-70s Mochizuki is one of the most famous female ninja. She founded an all-female espionage network from orphaned girls, refugees and prostitutes to spy for her husband’s uncle, Takeda Shingen. FÚMA KOTARÓ 1550-1603 Kotaro was the leader of the independent ninja Fuma clan. Kotaro served the Hojo clan, and in 1580 he and his ninja covertly infiltrated the Takeda clan’s camp causing chaos and panic. ISHIKAWA GOEMON 1558-94 Goemon was an outlaw ninja and Japan’s answer to Robin Hood, who stole from wealthy feudal lords and…

Germany Just like Britain, Germany found itself in need of a labour force as men were put forward onto the Western and Eastern fronts. Food blockades by the Allied forces just made things worse for the families left at home without a husband or a father. Youth and female employment increased drastically to provide the men with munitions. After the war, children and teenagers benefited more than women as they began to rely less on their parents and could find work more easily in the interwar period. Society stood still for women, however, who were still treated as inferior to men in the workplace. USA World War I saw the employment of 3 million women in the food, textile and war industries in the USA. With the men abroad, American…

DUKE OF CUMBERLAND LEADER Son of the monarch George II, the duke was eager to prove himself on the battlefield. Strengths Strict discipline ensured his men followed orders. Weakness His merciless treatment of wounded men earned him enmity in both Scotland and England. REDCOAT UNIT Trained to fight as a cohesive unit, the men of the king’s regiments were ready to repel the Jacobite rebels. Strengths Rigid training ensured they fought as a cohesive unit. Weakness Lacking the individual prowess of a Highland warrior. MUSKET KEY WEAPON Able to fire three rounds a minute and coming with an attachable bayonet, the musket was a versatile weapon on the battlefield. Strengths Massed fire could prove deadly to advancing infantry. Weakness Its bulky nature made it less effective in close quarters.…

“Southard’s book is about the incredible courage and will to survive shown by those who lived” NAGASAKI: LIFE AFTER NUCLEAR WAR Delve into the lives of survivors from the bomb that ended the war Author Susan Southard Publisher Souvenir Press Ltd Price £20 Released Out now When the second atomic bomb detonated over Nagasaki just three days after the first had obliterated Hiroshima, the devastation was absolute. 74,000 people were instantly killed and another 75,000 were injured, but that was just the beginning of the horrors the bomb would cause. In the agonising aftermath, tens of thousands contracted radiation sickness, and malnutrition became as big a killer as the bomb itself. The residents of Hiroshima and Nagasaki became known as hibakusha, which translates as ‘the atomic bomb-affected people’, and were…

1558 France takes back Calais Calais is England’s last continental possession and a relic from the campaigns of the Hundred Years’ War. It is lost in January after a successful French siege during the Italian War of 1551-59. 1610 Galilean moons discovered Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei makes his first observations of Ganymede, Callisto, Io and Europa. They orbit Jupiter and become the first objects discovered by humans that revolve around another planet. 1927 First transatlantic telephone service The first commercial radiotelephone service between Britain and the USA is set up. On just one circuit, an average of 2,000 calls were made a year, costing about £9 for a three-minute chat. 1931 First trans-Tasman flight Australian aviator Guy Menzies becomes the first person to fly solo and non-stop from Australia to…

Norwegian Norsemen first appeared in Ireland at the end of the 8th century with a hit-and-run attack on a monastery on either Rathlin or Lambay Island. These sporadic coastal attacks continued for 30 years, and despite later spreading to the mainland, actually had no great effect on the Irish settlements that would rebuild during the lulls in fighting. At this stage, the marauders were content with staging assaults that lasted no longer than a few days before returning to Scandinavia to sell their spoils. At the start of the next century, however, the Vikings grew in confidence and the pillaging intensified. Ship enclosures (known as longphorts) were established in Dublin, and these fixed positions allowed the raiders to ravage the countryside at will. It wasn’t long until Irish kings had…

Expert bio: Dr Alex Sanmark is reader in Medieval Archaeology at the Centre for Nordic Studies, University of the Highlands and Islands. She specialises in various aspects of the Viking Age, from religion to law and gender, both in Scandinavia and the Norse settlements in the north Atlantic. How important is L’Anse aux Meadows to our understanding of Viking settlements in the New World? It is hugely important because it is the only Viking settlement in the New World. There are other types of archaeological evidence though. Two Icelandic sagas, for instance, tell us about the Vikings sailing to Vinland from Greenland and Iceland. This has, of course, spurred people’s imagination, and many have been looking for evidence of Viking presence a lot further south, especially in the US. Others…

Normans Well known for their lands in France and England, the Normans were descendants of the Vikings. A realm was established in Sicily and southern Italy in the 10th century and the Norman people also established states in North Africa and even as far east in what is now Lebanon. Phoenicians To Vikings were to the north Atlantic, the Phoenicians were one of the finest trading civilisations of the ancient world. The most powerful city-states were Sidon and Tyre, which became almost too tough for Alexander the Great to conquer. Venetian Republic One of the finest nautical trading powers of all time, Venice was the greatest seaport in Late Medieval Europe. The Venetians were excellent shipbuilders thanks to the marshy lagoon in which they lived. The Republic controlled states such…

CASH FOR ACCESS Following a scandalous divorce, Sarah ‘Fergie’ Ferguson once again found herself front-page news when an undercover reporter filmed her offering access to her ex-husband Prince Andrew for £500,000. HARRY’S NAZI COSTUME Ever since his teenage years, Prince Harry has been the subject of scandal. He’s been caught smoking cannabis and making ‘racist’ remarks, and was photographed dressed as a Nazi at a ‘Colonial and Native’-themed house party. CAMILLAGATE Prince Charles and Camilla met in 1971, and began dating shortly after. Though they eventually went their separate ways, with Charles marrying Lady Diana Spencer in 1981, the pair were later recorded having an intimate conversation. KATE MIDDLETON TOPLESS There was outrage when in 2012, the French edition of Closermagazine published photos of the duchess sunbathing topless while on…

Spies One of the ninja’s main tasks was to gather intelligence for their lord before and during military campaigns. Using their clandestine skills to blend in with the enemy, they would infiltrate camps and castles. This allowed them to map defences, obtain passwords and report on troop movements. In 1487, Yoshihisa ninja infiltrated a Takayori camp at Magari, reporting back vital information before an attack was launched. Soldiers While ninja were masters of stealth and staying hidden from enemy combatants, they were also supremely skilled in conventional combat. Some ninja were also samurai, and a favoured tactic during battle was to create confusion among the enemy by capturing their banners. More commonly, however, ninja were used to bring prolonged sieges to a swift conclusion by acting as saboteurs. Saboteurs As…

1 80 PER CENT OF WEAPONS USED BY THE BRITISH ARMY WERE MADE BY WOMEN The war had a profound effect on a woman’s role in the workplace. On the eve of the war, approximately 30 per cent of the nation’s workforce was female and the majority worked in textile manufacture. This changed entirely as the war stepped up a gear and the need for munitions production increased drastically. It wasn’t just shell production that boomed though. The number of women in the transport industry increased by a huge 555 per cent as women helped roll vehicles off the production line and into the warzones of World War I. Without this invaluable help, events such as the shell crisis of 1915 would surely have been worse and might even have…

PEASANTS’ REVOLT BRITAIN 30 MAY 1381 - NOVEMBER 1381 Feudal 14th-century Britain was, of course, a very different place to today, but the basic market rules of supply and demand still applied – and in the wake of the Black Death, they were to be put to the test. The plague had hit the peasant population hard, and so these serfs were in short supply, meaning they could ask more from their superiors – like a reduction in their taxes. A mob led by an individual known as Wat Tyler descended upon London to protest. After two days of violence and demonstrations, Richard II met with the mob and mollified them by agreeing to their demands. A militia was roused, but in the meantime, Tyler was killed and the king…

Although strikes are often successful, some can have little or no effect, or can even make things worse for workers. The 1842 General Strike was initiated by miners after a 3.25 million-signature Chartist petition was snubbed by the House of Commons. The resulting strike took place in the industrial districts of the Midlands and spread to Lancashire, Yorkshire and Scotland. The prime minister, Sir Robert Peel, advocated non-intervention, but the Duke of Wellington (he of Waterloo fame) favoured sending in the army. The troops were dispatched and Chartist leaders were arrested. 1,500 were detained, and of these 79 were found guilty and sentenced to 21 years’ exile in one of the empire’s penal colonies. Men were also shot in several striking cities across the country. With the arrest of the…

PICKET SIGNS A SIGN OF THE TIMES Protesters used strong, powerful messages on their picket signs to take a stance against the Vietnam War. Messages on signs ranged from the peaceful ‘make love, not war’ to much more provocative and controversial ideas, such as comparing President Nixon to Hitler. HELMETS TACKLING THE WAR HEAD ON The iconic soldier’s helmet was worn by actress Jane Fonda as she visited troops in Vietnam. However, the visit stirred controversy as she sang anti-war songs with troops, but later the Vietnam Veterans Against War movement saw thousands of ex-soldiers uniting against the conflict. BOX OF MATCHES DRAFT BEER, NOT BOYS Despite more than 50 per cent of Americans opposing the war in Vietnam, the government reintroduced conscription, known as the draft. From 1964, students…

01 Nothing was damaged (except for the tea) 342 chests of tea worth about £9,659 were chucked overboard, but the ships themselves were left untouched. Nothing was looted and the decks of the ships were even swept clean and tidied after the protest. The only thing broken was one small padlock, which was promptly replaced the next day. 02 The destroyed tea could have brewed more than 18,000,000 cups So much tea was dumped into the harbour that it began to smell, badly. This made it easy for the British to locate the targeted ships, Dartmouth, Eleanor and Beaver. The ships were actually owned by Americans, with only the precious cargo belonging to the British. 03 They didn’t wear Native American headdresses Many images portray the Sons of Liberty as…

Exhausted farmland Scandinavia has a variety of landscapes but none were ideal for farming. Norway was , had extensive forests while Denmark could be too sandy. Desire for treasure Searching far-off lands for plunder is something the Vikings became associated with. Raids were carried out overseas and a settlement would be built to cement their claim to the loot. Overcrowding As the Viking population swelled, many sought to move elsewhere. The eldest son inherited family lands, so younger brothers would venture in search of territory to call their own. Wanderlust A sense of adventure was a common Viking trait. Even when the treasure dried up, the Norsemen were keen to seek out new lands in far-off places like America and Constantinople. New trade routes The popularity of Christianity meant that…

The influence left by the Vikings is greater than many are led to believe. From the Normans in the west to the Rus in the east, many civilisations that went on to dominate the late Middle Ages and beyond owe their roots to Viking expansion. The Vikings helped open the doors to pan-European trade and established urban centres at Dublin, Kiev and Reykjavik, cities at almost opposite ends of Europe. The effect of Norse culture is restricted more than it could have been as the Vikings never truly settled south of Denmark. They were an exploring people who lacked mass land armies and huge cities to stamp their authority and leadership on areas outside their own sphere of influence. They simply did not have the construction nous to establish a…

China in the 1960s is a place of censorship, poverty and hard labour. Chairman Mao Zedong is the ostensible head of the country, having led the Chinese Communist Party and chaired the People’s Republic of China from 1949-59, he will remain the chairman of the party until his death in 1976. However, he is more than a leader. Mao has created a fierce cult of personality around himself – his face is plastered across the country while his Little Red Book of quotes is compulsory reading. Mao has been in power for decades already by the time of the Cultural Revolution, an initiative characterised by feeding the public propaganda, encouraging young people to undermine figures of authority (apart from Mao) and eliminating political opponents. The ultimate aim is to secure…

1903 The Serbian government is overthrown. King Alexander and his wife are killed in the coup led by Dragutin Dimitrijevic and his group of army officers. 1906 The Serbian relationship with Austria-Hungary sours, resulting in a trade dispute named the Pig War due to a customs blockade on Serbian pork. 1908 Bosnia and Herzegovina is annexed by Austria-Hungary, causing outrage among those hoping to unite the South Slav countries. 1908-1909 The annexation results in the Bosnian Crisis, a time of protest and riots. Serbia becomes involved, but it ends in the Serbian acquiescence. 1911 The Black Hand society, concerned with the liberation of the South Slav states, is formed, consisting mainly of Dimitrijevic’s fellow army officers. 1912-1913 At the height of increasing tension in the area, the two Balkan Wars…

THE 18 DISCIPLINES 1 Seishinteki Kyóyó Spiritual refinement 2 Ninpó Taijutsu Athletic and hand-to-hand combat techniques 3 Kenpó Sword fighting 4 Sójutsu Fighting with spears 5 Naginatajutsu Glaive fighting techniques 6 Bójutsu Fighting with a staff 7 Kayakujutsu Using firearms, gunpowder and explosives 8 Kusarigamajutsu Fighting with sickle and chain 9 Shurikenjutsu Throwing weapons techniques 10 Kyújutsu Archery 11 Suijutsu Swimming and water-crossing techniques 12 Hensójutsu The art of disguise 13 Ongyójutsu Concealment and disappearing techniques 14 Kakushi Bukijutsu The use of concealed weapons 15 Ninki Mastering tools used to climb and break into houses 16 Ninyakujutsu Herbal medicines and first-aid skills 17 Gunryaku Heihó Intelligence gathering, covert techniques and unorthodox strategies 18 Tenmon Astrology, astronomy, meteorology, geography and topography Ninja spent their entire lives honing the skills, disciplines and…

Joseph Stalin emerged strongest in the power vacuum left by Lenin’s death in the USSR. However, if fellow Politburo member Leon Trotsky had risen to power, things could have been very different. Professor Geoffrey Roberts believes the state would have still been under authoritarian rule, as this would have been required to maintain the communist grip on power. “He would have been a more moderate dictator, but there would have been a cult of Trotsky to bind the country together, ensuring loyalty to the system.” The Trotsky-led USSR weathers the storm of the 1920s and 1930s using “the same brutal terroristic measures as Stalin, but maybe not quite as extreme.” Trotsky sees the use of Stalin as an ally, but also fears his influence in equal measure. To appease him,…

Edith Cavell Perhaps the most famous nurse of the entire war, Edith Cavell is said to have helped more than 200 Allied soldiers escape from German-occupied Belgium into the neutral Netherlands. Cavell cared for soldiers on both sides, but was captured by German officials and shot by a firing squad in October 1915. Flora Sandes Just being a nurse wasn’t enough for the headstrong Flora Sandes, who enlisted as a Serbian Army soldier. Leaving as soon as Austria-Hungary declared war, Sandes volunteered to work in an ambulance unit. Even when Serbia was invaded, she followed the new government-in-exile to Corfu as part of the Iron Regiment. Evelina Haverfield The former suffragette was described by Sylvia Pankhurst as “cold and proud”. A determined and active WSPU member, upon the outbreak of…

PRINCE CHARLES EDWARD STUART LEADER Grandson to the exiled king James II, the young prince hoped to win the throne back from George II. Strengths Personal charm and a strong claim to the throne. Weakness Poor decisions ultimately led to his defeat. HIGHLANDER UNIT With experience in the military and skirmishes with neighbouring clans, these men were tough warriors. Strengths The devastating Highland Charge. Weakness Hot headed and not always willing to follow orders. BROADSWORD KEY WEAPON Although not carried by all Jacobites, the broadsword was lethal in close combat. Strengths Brutal and deadly in close quarters. Weakness Its extremely limited range made the wielder vulnerable to musket and cannon fire.…

Mutiny On The Bounty 1935 Starring: Charles Laughton (Bligh), Clark Gable (Christian) Laughton’s hissable villain and Gable’s chiselled heroics are more fairytale than fact. Mutiny On The Bounty 1962 Starring: Trevor Howard (Bligh), Marlon Brando (Christian) Christian is made a martyr and Bligh a murderous tyrant as rules the waves. The Bounty 1984 Starring: Anthony Hopkins (Bligh), Mel Gibson (Christian) Things are on a slightly more even keel with this somewhat balanced, if a little embellished, retelling of the famous tale.…