Table of contents for No. 79 in History of War

15th century EMPERORS, SHOGUNS AND DAIMYOS During the late Medieval period, the emperor is officially the ruler of Japan but his role is largely ceremonial. Real power lies in the hands of the shogun, a noble warlord who forms a feudal military government. In the 15th century the shogunate gradually loses control over the subordinate daimyo lords who proceed to plunge the country into disorder. 1467-77 ONIN WAR A dispute between the Hosokawa and Yamana clans escalates into a nationwide civil war involving the Ashikaga shogunate and several daimyos across Japan. The war turns the Ashikaga shoguns into puppets of the Hosokawa until the 1550s and also initiates the Sengoku period. 16 October 1555 BATTLE OF MIYAJIMA 01 The powerful Ouchi clan is defeated by the numerically inferior forces of…

On the morning of 2 February 1461, a Yorkist army of 5,000 men commanded by Edward (who was then duke of York) intercepted a Lancastrian force led by Owen Tudor and the earls of Pembroke and Wiltshire. The two armies met at Mortimer’s Cross in Herefordshire with the Yorkists slightly outnumbering the Lancastrians. As dawn broke before the battle started a meteorological phenomenon known was a ‘parhelion’ occurred. A parhelion is an atmospheric optical illusion that consists of a bright spot to one or both sides of the sun. This often creates two ‘sun dogs’ that flank the sun at an angle of 22 degrees. The Yorkist troops were reputedly alarmed at the sight of three suns but Edward thought it represented the Holy Trinity and saw it as an…

An army of armoured knights from Poland, Saxony and Bohemia, supported by Pecheneg horse archers, arrived on the banks of the Western Bug River in Red Ruthenia on 23 July 1018. The army, under the leadership of Duke Boleslaw I Chrobry, was en route to the metropolis of Kiev to secure the city for Boleslaw’s son-in-law Prince Sviatopolk, who had been dethroned two years earlier. After they stopped for the day, Boleslaw ordered his knights to hunt game and have their servants prepare a feast to boost the morale of his troops before they went to battle against Sviatopolk’s nemesis, Prince Yaroslav of Kiev. While the servants were gutting the animals, they came under fire from Kievan archers on the opposite bank. The servants grabbed their arms, waded through the…

With the global economy reeling from the Great Depression that swept the 1930s, it seemed unthinkable for armed conflict to occur anywhere. But this is exactly what happened in different corners of the world, whether inflamed by imperial fascism or national pride. In the heart of South America, sovereignty over an uninhabitable wilderness drew two landlocked rivals to lengths neither foresaw. Since gaining its independence in 1825, Bolivia suffered an extended run of misfortune that dashed whatever promise it once held. Named after the Venezuelan revolutionary hero General Simon Bolivar, whose wars of independence between 1810 and 1826 freed several Latin American countries from the Spanish Empire, the country had its start with an immense geographic advantage that was whittled away by aggressive neighbours. In 1884, for example, Chile seized…

First designed in 1936 and then modified to a 1938 specification for a long-range, strategic heavy bomber, the Heinkel He. 177 Greif (‘Griffin’) was another example of exemplary German engineering that would never meet its full potential. The Griffin’s development was hampered by unreasonable requirements, such as the need for the aircraft to act as a dive bomber. This strict demand, finally lifted in 1942, was totally impractical for an aircraft of this size, and was a result of Hitler’s continued obsession with aircraft only having a tactical or battlefield use, as well as his lack of real interest in strategic bomber development. One of the biggest design issues for the Griffin was its engines. In order to reduce drag the aircraft was designed with only two nacelles, one on…

COMMEMORATING DRESDEN Speaking as part of the Stratford Literary Festival, bestselling author Sinclair McKay discusses his new book Dresden: The Fire And The Darkness Before WWII, Dresden was renowned for its beautiful architecture. However, Allied air raids between 13-15 February 1945 obliterated the city with an estimated 25,000 people being killed. To commemorate the 75th anniversary, Sinclair McKay participated in a special live talk with broadcaster Dan Snow at Coventry Cathedral on 4 February 2020. Speaking at the cathedral, McKay discussed the raid’s controversies, Dresden’s recovery and the power of reconciliation. What made the bombing of Dresden particularly infamous? It came so close to the end of the war and there is that sense that it seemed cruelly unnecessary. It inspires such particular horror because Dresden was, and is, a…

THE KATYN MASSACRE Between April and May 1940, nearly 22,000 Polish military prisoners of war and civilians were executed by the Soviet Union’s People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs (NKVD). Among the victims were thousands of Polish Army officers, members of the intelligentsia and others imprisoned after the Soviet invasion of the country the previous year. The mass graves of the victims were only discovered years later during the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. One of the first sites of the massacre to be discovered was in the Katyn Forest, in western Russia, though several locations were later linked to the killings. MINE’S A CUPPA A Handley Page ‘Hampden’ bomber crew give the thumbs-up after returning from operations off Bergen, Norway, on 22 April. As well as attacking German ships,…

Robert Parker (1666-1746) was a native of Kilkenny, Ireland, who ran away from home as a teenager to enlist in an independent infantry regiment. A Protestant, Parker was one of 4,000 soldiers who were dismissed from military service when the Catholic James II remodelled his Irish army in 1685. Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688, he was able to re-enlist and joined the Earl of Meath’s Regiment. Loyal to the Protestant William III, the unit was renamed the Royal Irish Regiment in 1695 and Parker served as an ordinary soldier. After conspicuous bravery at the Siege of Namur in the same year, he was awarded a commission as an ensign. Parker was subsequently promoted to captain in 1706, which was an unusual achievement for a commoner at the time. During…

When Toyotomi Hideyoshi died in 1598, he left a unified Japan in the hands of his five-year-old son, Hideyori – appointing a council of regents, comprising the country’s five most powerful lords. However, as the samurai returned home from the disastrous invasion of Korea, the regents split into two factions – one led by the Hideyori loyalist, Ishida Mitsunari, and the other by their senior-most member, Tokugawa Ieyasu. Having spent decades helping to unify the realm, Ieyasu had sacrificed too much to leave it in the hands of a child. A veteran of unparalleled prestige and power, he controlled an eighth of Japan’s wealth, bringing in enough food for 2.5 million people every year. In August 1599, as tensions erupted into full-blown conflict, Japan’s warlords were forced to pick a…

The morning of 24 March was bright and sunny. Operation Varsity, the subsidiary assault of the historic Rhine crossing, was poised to bring in reinforcements for the Allied troops on the eastern bank. Standing on a hilltop behind Xanten with Field Marshal Alan Brooke, Prime Minister Churchill shouted excitedly, “They’re here!” With a great roar overhead appeared 4,000 transport planes, tugs, and gliders of Maj. Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway’s XVIII Airborne Corps. In the next ten minutes, more than 8,000 paratroopers of the British 6th and US 17th Airborne Divisions were dropped. The paratroopers were dropped in close enough proximity to Allied ground units to avoid the endurance failures that squandered the British Airborne effort during Operation Market Garden. In total the operation employed 22,000 paratroopers and glider-borne forces in…

Richard III’s infamy rests on his usurping the throne from his infant nephew Edward V and likely ordering his subsequent murder in the Tower of London along with his younger brother Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York. Richard’s exact motives or whether he was even responsible for the crime have never been conclusively proven but the circumstances secured his posthumous villainy. By contrast, Edward IV’s reputation has remained relatively unblemished despite the fact that he conclusively ordered the death of his (and Richard’s) brother George, Duke of Clarence. Clarence was a treacherous character who had supported Edward’s claim to the throne before defecting to the Lancastrians in 1470 with his father-in-law Warwick the Kingmaker. He soon reconciled with Edward and even fought alongside him at the battles of Barnet and…

“OUR OWN ARTILLERY CAN ONLY FIRE ONE-TENTH OF THE AMOUNT FIRED BY THE ENEMY, SUCCESS CAN ONLY BE ACHIEVED BY CLOSEST COOPERATION AND BEST POSSIBLE GROUND OBSERVATION” In the Summer of 1944, the Allies captured and translated a German battlefield report written by Generalleutnant Freiherr (Baron) von Lüttwitz commander of 2 Panzer Division. This report was dated 14 July 1944 and covered the fighting between 17 June and 7 July. Lüttwitz’s unit was being relieved by the 362 Infantry Division, and he was required to appraise its commanding officer of what the situation was like on the front line. Copies of the translated report were then circulated to Allied units in a document called ‘Weekly Intelligence Summary No.42’. The document makes fascinating reading, as it is a primary source document…

The National Maritime Museum in Amsterdam has purchased two rare, royally commissioned tapestries designed by Willem van de Velde the Elder (1611-93) in England. The artworks are part of a series of six that depict various scenes from the Battle of Solebay, which was the first naval battle of the Third Anglo-Dutch War in 1672. Commissioned by Charles II and later James II, the tapestries have been restored with great care in the UK. The acquisition is the largest in the history of the museum and will go on public display from 2 October 2020 as part of a large Van de Velde exhibition. Sue Prichard, senior curator of arts at Royal Museums Greenwich says, “The tapestries remind us of our shared cultural heritage. The acquisition is not only welcome,…

Director: Agnieszka Holland Starring: James Norton, Vanessa Kirby, Peter Sarsgaard Released: Out now “Global economic collapse … Meanwhile, the Soviets are having a spending spree. How? Where is the money coming from? How is Stalin paying for it all?” These are the questions which bring young Welsh freelance journalist Gareth Jones to the USSR in 1933. Having recently made his name as the first foreign correspondent to get access to the newly elected Chancellor of Germany, Adolf Hitler, Jones has no interest in the drug-fuelled decadence and excess offered to the small circle of foreign journalists confined to Moscow. Following his journalistic instinct, he defies the ban on travel to Soviet Ukraine and takes a train towards Kharkiv, disembarking at a small random station to make his way on foot…

BATTLE FOR KUT Taken: March, 2003 US Marines take up position while fighting near the city of Kut, during the coalition invasion of Iraq. Kut, in the east of the country, was the scene of fierce fighting during the Iraq War, code named Operation Iraqi Freedom. It was previously the site of an Iraqi Air Force base. During WWI, a British garrison in Kut endured a five-month siege, before surrendering. FLIGHT DECK DOWNTIME Taken: 1982 Crew of HMS Hermes relax on the carrier’s flight deck, during a quiet moment of the Falkland’s War. Hermes served as the Royal Navy’s flagship during the conflict, where it operated Sea Harriers and Westland Sea King helicopters. Hermes was decommissioned two years later and sold to the Indian Navy, where it was renamed INS…

Even during the climax of the bloodthirsty Sengoku era, the samurai were men of honour. Their commitment to formality and manners, even in the face of death, at times bordered on the surreal. Although Ieyasu wanted his general Fukushima Masanori to lead the charge, glory notwithstanding, Ii Naomasa felt it was not appropriate for a man who had been so close to Hideyoshi to strike the first blow against the forces of his son. It could be argued that honour itself played a crucial role in the outcome. While they were drawing out their battle plans, had Mitsunari not spoken over the elderly Shimazu Yoshihiro, dismissing his contribution, perhaps he would have found him a more committed ally. In a humorous anecdote, when an antsy Ieyasu sent a follower to…

The Confederate cannon were already unlimbering, and soon the chilling “Yip! Yip!” of the rebel yell would be heard above the din of battle. On 2 July 1863, the outcome of the Battle of Gettysburg, the turning point of the American Civil War, hung in the balance. Although neither Major General George G. Meade, commander of the Union Army of the Potomac, nor Lieutenant General Robert E. Lee, the revered leader of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, had intended to fight near the small town in southern Pennsylvania, the death struggle was in its second day. After nearly suffering a catastrophic defeat on the first day, Meade had deployed his army on favourable ground, in the shape of a fish hook, which would afford him the advantage of interior…

On the morning of 1 April 1939, Spaniards switched on their radios to listen to the high-pitched voice of Francisco Franco, the pudgy general from Galicia, who plunged Spain into three years of civil war that left half a million dead and a country in ruins. “On this day, having captured and disarmed the Communist army, the Nationalist troops have attained their last military objective. The war has ended.” Not quite. Open combat between rival armies on the battlefield had effectively come to an end. Within weeks of the ceasefire, bands of Spanish ex-combatants, known as the Maquis, unleashed a guerrilla offensive from bases in France and in Spanish safe houses. The campaign lasted until the 1960s, with acts of sabotage and assassinations of Francoist troops and politicians, which in…

The Dutch resistance deployed many tactics against occupying forces during WWII. These were mostly non-violent in nature and included counterintelligence, domestic sabotage, communicating with the Allies and hiding Jews. A small minority used violence to directly kill Nazis and collaborators but of those only a tiny number were women. However, they were arguably the most audacious fighters. This included three women from the north Holland city of Haarlem – Hannie Schaft and sisters Truus and Freddie Oversteegen. They are the subject of Sophie Polderman’s book Killing And Seducing Nazis. Poldermans, a Dutch women’s rights advocate, lecturer and writer, knew the Oversteegen sisters in old age and worked with them for the National Hannie Schaft Foundation. She reveals what motivated the women, their methods of killing and the horrendous price of…

Writer: Jonathan Trigg Publisher: Amberley Publishing Price: £20 ‘It will all be over by Christmas’ is a painfully familiar phrase in military history, and in the vast majority of cases it has proved to be wildly optimistic. In 1944, however, after the Allies had broken out of their Normandy beachheads and the Soviets were pressing forward in the east, it really should all have been over in a matter of months. The story of how this opportunity to end the war was bungled is a fascinating one, told here through the eyes of the defiant Germans who strung the fighting out deep into the following year. “GERMAN MORALE REMAINED HIGH IN MANY UNITS THROUGH THE AUTUMN OF 1944, WHEN THE GAME APPEARED TO BE UP” The book makes use of…

Writer: Peter Jacobs Publisher: The History Press Price: £20 After having set up one of the first underground organisations in France, being captured and escaping over the Pyrenees into Spain, brothers Henry and Alfred Newton were delivered the devastating news that the mercy ship carrying their entire family – parents, wives, children – had been torpedoed and sunk by a Nazi U-boat with the loss of all aboard. From that moment on, the Newton brothers were consumed with a passion for revenge. Recruited by the Special Operations Executive (SOE), and known to everyone simply as ‘The Twins’ they waged their own personal war against the Nazis in France. For 18 months the two agents lived on the edge, before being caught by the Gestapo and eventually taken to Buchenwald. They…